1. INDIAN INDENTURESHIP: The new slavery of British capitalism 

INDIAN INDENTURESHIP: The New Slavery of British Capitalism

By Gulcharan Mohabir 

 On May 5, 1838, two British ships, the Whitby and the Hesperus landed in Port Georgetown, British Guiana (BG) (now called Guyana), on the South American continent. The cargo: 396 Indians from India. (Eighteen died during the voyage).   This was the first batch of Indians to arrive in the western world under the new system euphemistically called Indentureship, but which became in reality   "The New System of Slavery" ,according to Lord John Russell, a Secretary of State for the Colonies.

 In 1834, black (African) slavery had been abolished in British Guiana and the British West Indies. The Abolition of Slavery Act came into effect on August 1, 1834, and proclaimed that: "slavery shall be and is hereby utterly and forever abolished and declared unlawful throughout the British colonies, plantations and possessions abroad." Subsequent events have shown that this was interpreted to apply only to black (African) slavery.

 The newly freed slaves afterwards refused to work on the sugar plantations, those repositories of the most inhumane treatment ever meted out by humans to their fellow humans. Even though the white plantocracy tried to entice them with monetary inducements, freedom was far more valuable. (And who can blame them!). Many sugar plantations were abandoned, especially the absentee-owner plantations. Others became uneconomical propositions. Sugar was floundering. The British plantation owners as a class were losing their collective shirt, and also their status in society. The former black slaves had provided a ready source of cheap, easily controlled labour, on whose backs the white plantocracy had accumulated immense wealth and enviable status in British society. It became imperative to find a new similar source of cheap and easily controlled labour.

 The British East India Company came to their rescue!

 Below is reproduced a letter sent from British Guiana to India in 1836:

Copy of letter from John Gladstone, Esq.
to Messrs. Gillanders, Arbuthnot & Co.(1)

 Liverpool,

 4 January 1836

 Dear Sirs,  

I met with an accident here about three weeks ago, which confined me to the house, from which I am now recovering, and hope in a few days to be able to return to Edinburgh; this will account to you for using my son's pen for writing in place of my own. I observe by a letter which he received a few days ago from Mr. Arbuthnot,  that he was sending a considerable number of a certain class of Bengalees, to be employed as labourers, to the Mauritius. You will probably be aware that we are very particularly situated with our Negro apprentices in the West Indies, and that it is a matter of doubt and uncertainty how far they may be induced to continue their services on the plantations after their apprenticeship expires in 1840. This to us is a subject of great moment and deep interest in the colonies of Demerara and Jamaica. We are therefore most desirous to obtain and introduce labourers from other quarters, and particularly from climates something similar in their nature. Our plantation labour in the field is very light; much of it, particularly in Demerara, is done by task-work, which for the day is usually completed by two o'clock in the afternoon, giving to the people all the rest of the day to themselves. They are furnished with comfortable dwellings and abundance of food; plantations, the produce of the colony, being the most common, and preferred generally by them; but they have also occasionally rice, Indian corn, meal, ship's biscuits, and a regular supply of salt cod-fish, as well as the power of fishing for themselves in the trenches. They have likewise an annual allowance of clothing sufficient and suitable for the climate; there are schools on each estate for the education of the children, and the instruction of their parents in the knowledge of religious duties. Their houses are comfortable, and it may be fairly said they pass their time agreeably and happily. Marriages are encouraged, and when improper conduct on the part of the people takes place, there are public stipendiary magistrates, who take cognizance of such, and judge between them and their employers. They have regular medical attendance whenever they are indisposed, at the expense of their employers. I have been particular in describing the present situation and occupation of our people, to which I ought to add, that their employment in the field is clearing the land with the hoe, and, where required, planting fresh canes. In the works a portion are occupied in making sugar, and in the distilleries, in which they relieve each other, which makes their labour light. It is of great importance to us to endeavour to provide a portion of other labourers, whom we might use as a set-off, and, when the time for it comes, make us, as far as it is possible, independent of our negro population; and it has occurred to us that a moderate number of Bengalees, such as you were sending to the Isle of France, might be very suitable for our purpose; and on this subject I am now desirous to obtain all the information you can possibly give me. The number I should think of taking and sending by one vessel direct from Calcutta to Demerara would be about 100; they ought to be young, active, able-bodied people. It would be desirable that a portion of them, at least one-half, should be married, and their wives disposed to work in the field as well as they themselves. We should require to bind them for a period not less than five years or more than seven years. They would be provided with comfortable dwellings, food, and medical assistance; they would also, if required, be provided with clothing, or wages to provide themselves, which, for the able-bodied, would not exceed four dollars per month, and in that proportion for females and their children as they grow up; a free passage would be given to them to Demerara, where they would be divided, and 20 to 30 placed on one plantation. I do not know whether the class referred to are likely to be of a particular caste, and under the influence of certain religious feelings, and also restricted to any particular kind of food; if so, we must endeavor to provide for them accordingly. You will particularly oblige me by giving me, on receipt, all the information you possibly can on this interesting subject; for, should it be of an encouraging character, I should immediately engage for one of our ships to go to Calcutta, and take a limited number to Demerara, and from thence return here. On all other subjects I refer you to letters from the house; and always am,

  yourstruly

John Gladstone

Back came the reply:

Copy of letter from Messrs. Gillanders, Arbuthnot & Co.
to John Gladstone, Esq.(1)

Calcutta, 6 June 1836.

Dear Sir,

We beg to acknowledge your letter of the 4th January, referring to your desire to procure natives from this part of the world to work upon your estates in the West Indies, and in some degree render you independent of the Negro population at the termination of the present system; and it is with regret that at the time the letter under reply was written you were suffering from an accident, the effects of which, however, we hope ere this are entirely gone.

Within the last two years upwards of 2,000 natives have been sent from this to the Mauritius, by several parties here, under contracts of engagement for five years. The contracts, we believe, are all of a similar nature; and we enclose copy of one, under which we have sent 700 or 800 men to the Mauritius; and we are not aware that any greater difficulty would present itself in sending men to the West Indies, the natives being perfectly ignorant of the place they agree to go to, or the length of the voyage they are undertaking. The tribe that is found to suit best in the Mauritius is from the hills to the north of Calcutta, and the men of which are all well-limbed and active, without prejudices of any kind, and hardly any ideas beyond those of supplying the wants of nature, arising it would appear, however, more from want of opportunity than from any natural deficiency, of which there is no indication in their countenance, which is often one of intelligence. They are also very docile and easily managed, and appear to have no local ties, nor any objection to leave their country.

In the event of your determining to introduce these people in the West Indies and sending a ship for them, a contract such as the one enclosed, if approved of, or modified or enlarged as you may think necessary, may be entered into with any number of men you would wish us to procure, and this contract upon landing the men in the West Indies and being registered at the Police-office, would, we conclude, give your managers sufficient power to insist upon their performing any reasonable task they may be set to. Such has been the case in the Mauritius, and in one or two instances where the men have been idle or lazy, they have been punished by the competent authority. It would perhaps avoid after-discussion were the currency in which the men will be paid, and its equivalent value with the rupee, stated in the contract. The best period for procuring and shipping the men is in our cold season, between the months of November and April, and the instruction to procure the men should precede the ship about two months, to give time to collect them; we should of course not be able to find a cargo for the ship, but some morghy rice might be sent, which with a little care would keep for three years.

The security taken by government here upon taking natives to England is to protect the East India Company from loss in the event of natives being left in England without the means of subsistence or of finding their way back, in which case the Company are bound to provide for them until a passage to India can be procured, but no guarantee is required upon sending men elsewhere; as however the colonial government will probably make the importer enter into an agreement that these men shall be no burden to the colony, a provision is made in the contract to withhold so much of their allowances as will pay their passage back, should it be found necessary to discharge them before their period of service has expired.
We fear we should not find so many as half of the number provided with wives; as, however, our friends at the Isle of France have always discouraged the men being so accompanied, we are not very well able to say how far the women might be induced to go.

Our letters from the Isle of France speak very favourably of the men hitherto sent, many of whom our friends write to us have their task completed by two o'clock, and go home, leaving the Negroes in the field.
We are not aware that we can say any more on this subject, unless we add, that in inducing these men to leave their country, we firmly believe we are breaking no ties of kindred, or in any way acting a cruel part.
The Hill tribes, known by the name of Dhangurs, are looked down upon by the more cunning natives of the plains, and they are always spoken of as more akin to the monkey than the man. They have no religion, no education, and, in their present state, no wants beyond eating, drinking, and sleeping; and to procure which they are willing to labour. In sending men to such a distance, it would of course be necessary to be more particular in selecting them, and some little expense would be incurred, as also some trouble; but to aid any object of interest to you, we should willingly give our best exertions in any manner likely to be of service.

We are, &c.
Gillanders, Arbuthnot & Co.

P.S.--You will observe, upon reading over the form of our contract, that it is registered in our Police-office, and authenticated by one of the magistrates, in whose presence the document is signed, after the nature of it has been explained to the parties in their own language.

(signed) G., A.& Co.

Notice the derogatory language used in the last paragraph of the second letter. It's as if the writer, by denigrating these people as "monkeys and not humans", is justifying the imposition of slavery on these Indians. Even in present day, whites refer to the peoples of the former British colonies as "natives", a term that intentionally denotes an inferior status.

 Additionally, because of their inability to communicate in English, they were branded as being illiterate (2).

 These unfortunate souls comprised the first batch of what was euphemistically known as INDENTURED LABOURERS, sometimes derogatively referred to as "coolies", which meant that they were bonded under contract for five or more years for a paltry annual wage to work on the sugar plantations of all British colonies. This successor system of the new slavery was devised wholly and solely to circumvent the original Abolition of Slavery Act.

 Indians were duped into making the journey across the kala pani(3); some were simply kidnapped and forcibly transported to the colonies; whilst a few voluntarily agreed to go(3). It is also believed that some signed up to go to the colonies to escape British retribution after the Great Mutiny in 1857 in India. Worse, there were many cases of young children being kidnapped and taken to the colonies. Of especial significance is the despicable conduct of arkaati's, Indians who acted as procurers for the British in India to acquire candidates for Indentureship. They were made to sign a contract (4) drawn up by their new masters in the English language, and so most were ignorant of the terms and conditions of their indentureship contracts.

 There were three major elements of these contracts: each ‘indentured' was made to serve on a particular sugar estate for a specified pay for a specified period; the duration of the contract was for five years(5); and the plantation owners had to pay for the return passage to India at the end of their contract. Fortunately for them, they were permitted to practice their religion and other cultural practices. (Under the previous slavery system, Africans were completely dispossessed of their entire identity).

 These Indians knew nothing of their final destination; neither did they know how long the journey would take. Needless to say many died on the trip. It is estimated that the death rate of each trip was as high as seventeenth percent.

 On their arrival in the colonies, they were deployed in various sugar plantations, where they were lodged in loogies, which were actually the living quarters of the original black slaves. The harsh treatment meted out to them was similar to slavery. In fact, Indentureship became a euphemism for the new slavery, since for all intent and purposes, these Indians were basically slaves (The white masters had complete control over their lives). There were many rebellions against their owners, but as Dr. Brinsley Samaroo in his article: "Two Abolitions: African Slavery and East Indian Indentureship" stated: "East Indian resistance to Indentureship often expressed in fashion similar to the African resistance to slavery took the form of riots, strikes, desertion and murder of offending managers and overseers. Such resistance was invariably, as in the days of slavery, put down with exemplary harshness. Yet resistance persisted, as Indians were becoming increasingly better organized, producing strong leadership as the immigrants grew more accustomed to their new environment". Several instances of revolt resulted in commissions of inquiry set up to investigate the treatment of Indians on the sugar plantations. Commissions consisted of both British and Indian Nationals. Abuse of Indian women by white personnel on the sugar estates was also rampant. Many Indians even tried unsuccessfully to return to India, and many died in the dangerous forests. On recapture, they were usually flogged and salt rubbed on their wounds, and then imprisoned.

 On the sugar estates, Sardaars were appointed as mainly go-betweens. These were Indians who had somehow acquired a smattering of the English language, and so were able to facilitate communication between the plantation owners and the indentureds. In time, these Sardaars became very powerful themselves, and in their privileged position have been known to mete out more atrocities on their own kind. Many acquired substantial wealth on the backs of the common labourers.

 The then British Government did appoint a special agent in each colony (called the Immigration Agent-General) to ensure that the welfare (including their health) of these indentureds was protected, and that the inhuman practices of the former slavery system were not repeated. These supposed protectors were all whites, and of course, they always sided with the white plantation owners. Each colony only had one such official, and it was impossible for him to be present all the time in all the plantations. And so in their absence, untold atrocities were meted out. On the few occasions when they visited particular sugar plantations, the owners would ply them with food and alcohol until they are too drunk to perform any kind of investigation of abuses. Most importantly, Indians were regarded as habitual liars, and this perception pre-empted any investigation of claimed abuses.

 There were many commissions (such as the Des Voeux Commission) appointed to investigate the deplorable conditions under which these Indians survived (some did not survive the cruelty). Some of these comprised of high ranking Indians from the Government of India. Some of their reports only served to white-wash most of the atrocities that were perpetrated. There were a few Indian politicians, notably Pandit Madan Mohan Malaviya, who tried very hard to have the system abolished entirely, which eventually did occur in 1917. The Mahatma himself (in view of his South African experience) is believed to have also opposed this Indenturship system,

 The British used the ex-African slaves as security personnel to police the Indians on the sugar plantations. Some Africans were also used as nurses in the hospitals maintained by the white planters. During hospital stays Indians were forced to consume pork and beef by these nurses. These practices bred hostility between Indians and Africans, and were probably the beginning of simmering hostilities between the races, which persist until today in all former British colonies.

 The introduction of Indian indentureds into the sugar plantation was a highly successful venture for the white plantation owners. Sugar became king again! The industry grew to amazing heights never before realised. Sugar made many new English barons. As can be imagined, the plantocracy now wanted to keep the indentureds on the sugar estates for as long as possible (5).

 The return passages proved to be too expensive for the scrooge plantation owners, and various schemes were devised to retain them in the colonies. One such scheme was the allotment, for a price, of small plots of land to many of the labourers to cultivate crops for themselves. This played well with the Indians, who always dreamed of owning their own land. (In fact, inspite of the many hardships encountered during their indentureship period, many of them had saved up tidy sums of money and returned to India). They planted crops, and reared animals, such as chickens, ducks, goats, sheep, and of course cows. Although this new practice was devised to keep these Indians from returning to India, it gave those who remained in the colonies a new dream for a better life. The cultivation of rice by predominantly Indians in the colony eventually became a major industry in BG, and was one of the main export industry there, (after sugar and bauxite). Many Indians went on to make small fortunes from rice!

 This inhumane system was also finally abolished in 1917. By that time, over half-a-million Indians had been transported to the West Indians, with the majority settled in British Guiana (238,909) and Trinidad (143,939). Many did return to India, after having accumulated small savings. (The Indentureship contract guaranteed them a return passage to India, at the cost to the plantation owners.) Some 74,645 persons were repatriated from British Guiana to India at the end of their contracts.

 After this insidious system ended, many Indians continued to labour on the sugar plantation as free men and women, but still receiving paltry wages. Many also used their weekends and holidays to work their own land and became fairly wealthy. They planted rice, which became one of the main industries in British Guiana. The technology of the rice industry was imported from India, and its cultivation provided a source of cheap food for the then indentureds. Families collaborated together to produce wealth they never previously possessed. Most Indians laboured continuously during their lifetime so that they could acquire the wealth to educate their children. (The writer's father always confided that he will labour so that his children do not have to experience what he endured).

 Post-1917 brought some freedom and wealth to the former indentureds. Nevertheless, there were many systemic impediments to full-fledged citizenship. During the period 1834 to 1917, the former African slaves, now freed, had established themselves as the new middle class, between the white ruling class and Indians at the bottom of the social ladder. Africans had acquired for themselves an English (read Christian) education, and so became qualified to hold civil service and other professional positions. Since they had all converted to Christianity, religion also became a qualifying factor in job placements. To become a teacher, a policeman, a civil servant, or other such positions, one had to be a Christian. Many Indians who remained in these colonies were therefore forced to convert.(6)

 As happened in Africa during and after colonisation, the Christian missionaries were hard at work on the sugar plantations endeavouring to save the heathens' souls. Indian children were forced to attend Christian schools, and to worship in Christian churches. Schooling in Indian religion or culture was not provided in these government-funded schools. In fact, Indians were forced to send their children to evening schools, housed in Hindu or Muslim churches to acquire a smattering of education in anything Indian. Even this half-hearted attempt at an Indian education floundered when parents discovered that only an English (read Christian) education could get their sons and daughters jobs in the colonies. Eventually, they lost their language; but they nevertheless clung to their religion, their culture, their Indian food; as much as possible of their Indianness.(7)

 Of particular importance in this most deplorable episode of human history is the multifarious ploys employed by the white plantation owners, with the willing connivance of the administrators of the colonies, to subvert and even ignore current laws as they relate to these Indentureds. The laws that allowed this system to operate were openly flouted, since the administration of these laws and penalties arising thereof, were always in the hands of whites. Provisions for the welfare of these people, such as hospitals, schools, housing, etc., were grossly inadequate. Indians were even killed in many cases.

 The British had been masters at subjugation. So much so that they made Indians kill other Indians. They used India as a source of slave labour in their colonies, in the same way that they had used Africa. They even made us believe that what they were doing was for our own good, and that we were the ‘white man's burden'. We are still bedevilled with a colonial mentality, and have become adept at denigrating our religion and our customs beliefs. More insidious was the practise that developed and exits even today (and we see various forms of intellectual contortions that evidence this): business interests of the powerful and privileged are protected and promulgated by or with the use of political and military power. This practice is rationalised as being "our national interest" or "national security", and this justifies almost any behaviour.

 
Postscript:

This episode of Indian History has been more or less ignored by the history books of India. This is incomprehensible, since a great deal of the original documentation exits in archives in Calcutta and Bombay, and the India Office Library of the British Archives(UK). One can only speculate as to the reason for this grave omission.

 In 1988, the Ontario Association for Studies in Indo-Caribbean Culture (OASICC) celebrated the one hundred and fiftieth anniversary of coming of Indians to the West Indies. This event was marked by a week long conference at the University of York, and the end result was the publication of "Indentureship and Exile", a compendium of papers presentation by several scholars.

 The Guyanese East Indian Association of Canada and the Indo-Trinidadian Canadian Association started to celebrate Indian Heritage Day on May 5, and the whole month of May was dedicated to celebrating Indian culture and heritage. The intention was, and still is, to honour all our ancestors who suffered so much, and gave their progenies so much. Another concomitant motivation was to make our youths proud to be Indians, by celebrating our rich cultural heritage and honouring our multifarious achievements throughout the ages.

 Mr Raminder Gill, an MPP for the Conservative Party in Ontario, realised the immense importance of this celebration to the South Asian community in Canada, and in December 2001, he introduced legislation (AN ACT TO PROCLAIM MAY AS SOUTH HERITAGE MONTH AND MAY 5 AS SOUTH ASIAN ARRIVAL DAY), which was supported by all parties in the Ontario legislature, and which was into passed into law, making May 5 South Asian Arrival day, and the month of May as South Asian Heritage month.(8) The Act proclaims "It is appropriate to recognize and pay tribute to the contributions South Asian immigrants have made, and continue to make, to the development and general welfare of Ontario." This celebration has caught the imagination of the South Asian community, and today there are as many as fifty different celebrations during May, and it is expected that the future will see many significant enhancements to the type and format of these events.

 
NOTES:

(1) Both these letters were abstracted from "HILL COOLIES: A brief exposure of the Deplorable Condition of the Hill Coolies in British Guiana and Mauritius, and of the nefarious means by which they were induced to resort to these Colonies" by John Scoble. See http://www.indiana.edu/~librcsd/etext/scoble/index.html

 (2) Indians were regarded as backward, illiterate and uncivilized (according to the Britishers) because they did not know the English language, and were not conversant with western culture and the lifestyle (Dare we refer to whites as illiterate and uneducated because they do not know Hindi or Sanskrit or any other Indian language for that matter, and totally unfamiliar with Indian customs and practices!). But as Clem Seecharran has documented in his highly acclaimed book "BECHU: bound coolie radical in British Guiana 1894-1901" there were Indians who were actually more articulate than some of the white plantocracy they slaved for in the then British colony.

 In this book Dr. Seecharran chronicled the numerous letters written by Bechu during 1894 to 1901. ‘He challenged the plantocracy's definition of the colony's welfare purely within their own frame of reference. Bechu's combative pen unmasked the evils of Indian Indentureship: poor wages and conditions of work; sexual exploitation of women workers by managers and overseers; the obsession with sugar and indentured labour; collusion between colonial authorities - including the Indians' "protectors" - and the sugar planters. Bechu's letters were a catalyst for debates on the central issues of the day, as they were an inspiration to Indians in the colony.'

 In February 1897, Bechu became the first Indian in the Caribbean to appear before a Royal Commission investigating conditions prevailing in British Guiana.

 (3) One of my closest friends had told me the story about his paternal grandfather. When this gentleman was about seventeen years old and still living in India, he was out walking with one of his friend. They were accosted by a white man, who asked them if they would like to see what a British frigate looked like inside. The youths agreed to go on board, and whilst they were inside the engine room, the ship set sail. By the time these boys realised what was happening, they were already far out at sea.

 (4) This is an example of the Indentured contract that Indians were made to sign before embarking on the ship for the colonies:

Copy Form of Contract

Between the undersigned acting on behalf of of Mauritius, and the natives whose names are hereunto affixed, the following agreement has been entered into by the several parties binding themselves to the observance of the conditions thereof:

1. The natives agree to proceed to the Isle of France, to work as labourers there, upon a sugar estate, the property of and to remain there, if required, for the time of five years.

2. The passage of the natives to the Mauritius shall be paid by who shall also provide a passage again to this country, at the end of five years, for each native who may then wish to return; but if any individual, from any cause, should be discharged or leave the employment of before the expiration of five years, such individual shall have no claim on him for a passage.

3. The pay of the natives shall be fixed at the rate of five rupees per month for each man. The labour required from them will be that of digging holes, weeding canes, working in the sugar-house, repairing roads and bridges, or otherwise making themselves useful, according to their ability, as may order them; the quantity of daily labour required from each to be fixed by the manager of the property; the pay of one sirdar shall be fixed at seven rupees per month, and that of one mate six rupeess, and boys at three rupees per month.

4. As must be responsible to government that the nativess shall not be a burden to the colony, in the event of their being discharged or leaving their employments, one rupee per month shall be retained from the pay of each individual, until there shall be a sufficient sum to provide a passage for each to Calcutta; should no such contingency take place, the money shall be restored at the end of five years.

5. In addition to the pay as above fixed, food and clothing shall be supplied to each as follows--

Fourteen chettacks of rice (about 2lbs.), two ditto of dholl*, two ounces of salt, and some oil and tamarind, daily; and annually for each, clothing as follows; two dhooties, two blankets, one jacket, and one cap.
6. Each individual shall receive six months pay in advance, for which he shall give an acknowledgement here; their pay to commence from the date of their going on board the ship.
7. The nature of this agreement (which shall be registered at the police) is such, that each native is individually responsible for the observance of its conditions by every one whose mark it bears; and it is further agreed, that while in hospital, from sickness or any other cause, the pay is stopped during such time.

* Something like dried split peas

SOURCE: Parliamentary Papers, LII No. 180, 1837-38. MF41.413-14

 (5) There were many ploys that they white plantocracy concocted to extend the period of indentureship, such as any period of imprisonment had to be added to the contracted period.

 (6) In British Guiana, this practice was abolished in 1962, when Dr Cheddi Jagan, an Indian, became the first Premier of BG.

 (7) In the last two decades, many Indians revisited India in the hopes of finding their ‘roots'. They have always remained fiercely Indian, to the point where they would root for the visiting Indian cricket team when touring in the West Indies.

Also, going to the cinema to watch Indian movies become a favourite pastime for most diasporic Indians, as this was a way for them to relate to India and bind them to Mother India.                                                                                       

It's always a source of amazement to recently emigrated Indians in the North American Diaspora to hear Indians from the West Indies singing Hindi songs, but not able to speak any intelligible Hindi.

 (8) The movement to recognize May 5 as Indian Cultural and Heritage Day was initiated by Guyanese and Trinidadians in Toronto. The term South Asian was preferred over the original Indian nomenclature so that the celebration could be more inclusive. This was a most magnanimous gesture on the part of Mr Raminder Gill, who being Indian born, wanted to involve all Sri Lankans, Bangladeshis, Pakistanis, Indians from the African continent, in addition to Indians from India and the West Indies.

Some references:

1                 Centenary History of East Indians in Guyana by Peter Ruhomon.

2                 Bechu: bound coolie radical in British Guiana 1894-1901 by Dr. Clem       

                   Seecharan.

3                 Tiger in the stars by Dr. Clem Seecharan

4                 The History of Indians in Guyana by Dwarka Nath.

5                 Indenture and exile - The Indo-Caribbean experience - compiled by Frank Birbalsingh. (Selected papers from the York Indo-Caribbean Studies Conference, York University, Toronto, Canada)